Friday Homework, Study Sheet

OK, I'm going to post this early so that everybody gets to see it.  For me to post it after 7 or 8 would be too late.  That I posted yesterday's assignment after 7:30 was unavoidable, as I didn't get home until almost 7.  The teacher posting it early is the best case scenario, though!

(By the way, in case you didn't notice, you can find three examples of adjective complements above!)

Sorry about the stinky situation in room 203 today.  My sense of smell must not be so strong. Thanks for putting up with it and the move.  I'll let you know where we'll be on Monday as soon as I can.  I have a feeling that it will be in room 203, which is our usual room.  The situation should be better by then.  In case you can't access the internet after today for some reason, I'll post a message in room  203 if we are to be in a different room.

So now everybody knows all about Abdulaziz's taste in music!  I can't say it's my cup of tea, but there's no doubt that the guys behind the music (despite their unhealthy lifestyles!) are serious artists who have a lot of talent, intelligence, and integrity, which I respect.

And today we said goodbye to Danbee and Jenny, which was fun but sad.  Saying farewell is always sad, but we're happy that our students are moving on the the next phase of their lives.  Also, we said goodbye to Rawan for a while.  For her to follow the class on this blog would be great.  I'll try to put as much information as possible so that she can participate.  If she'd like to send me homework assignments, I'd be happy to check them.

For homework this weekend, please do Exercise 4 on page 377, which we'll go over on Monday.  Pay special attention to the vocabulary from those pages, as are listed on the vocabulary sheet.

Also, read the passage that I gave you today ("The Generic Plot Pattern in Children's Literature") and prepare any questions you may have on it for Monday before the test.  I'll include some writing questions based on this for the test.

And now, as usual, it's time for our study sheet.  I have edited it to show that we did not do page 378 of Grammar dimensions or the listening in Academic Connections, so you don't have to study those words...if you don't want to, that is.  But for you to study those words would be awesome!

AM Proficiency Week 18 Study Sheet

Study Grammar Dimensions Units 9 and 20

Grammar Dimensions p167-8

pervasive

thorough

a grant/to grant/take for granted

Grammar Dimensions p171

a vessel (ship/container)

Grammar Dimensions p172-3

exasperating/to exasperate/exasperation

a civil war

Grammar Dimensions p175

a bush

a nursery school

mining/to mine/undermine

Grammar Dimensions 374-5

a (medical) advance

to break into

commendable

to harass/harassment

to thwart

overzealous/zeal, zealous, zealot

to nudge/a nudge

a pygmy

intriguing/to intrigue

Grammar Dimensions p376-7

ivory

a poacher/to poach

a tusk

a moratorium

abominable/an abomination

compulsory

improper

inappropriate

fur

rampant

vinyl

Academic Connections Unit 8

Academic Connections p162

an orphan/to orphan/an orphanage

Academic Connections “The Window”

to suspend/suspense/suspension

cozy

to gaze, a gaze

to nestle/nestled in

to honk, a honk

to flap, a flap

to long to + V/to long for + noun

jumpy

to zip

“yikes”

Academic Connections p 166

burdensome/a burden/to burden

a constraint/to constrain

to diverge/divergent

a fairy tale

generic

merely/mere

a schema

to suit/to be suited to

to bear a relationship to

Academic Connections p167-8

inevitable

to resolve to

teeming with/to teem

an inversion/to invert/inverted

The Hero’s Journey

a quest

out-of place

polymorphous

enraged

a blunder

a torment

a no-brainer

to vow/a vow

to embark

breathtaking

mettle

a wizard

a sidekick

a thread

an obstacle

prowess

to blow s.t. up

an ordeal

an archetype

a villain

a gatekeeper

a herald

a trickster

an ally

a mentor/to mentor

a threshold

a temptress

a femme fatale

Thursday Homework

Sorry, guys!  I suddenly had to teach a Low Intermediate class this afternoon, which was exhausting!  I didn't finish until 6 and I just got a chance to post this new information now.  I hope this isn't too late.

I'd like you to do Exercise 9 on page 175 (please write this on a piece of paper and hand it in tomorrow), then jump forward and do Exercises 1 and 2 in Unit 20 on pages 374-5 (you don't have to hand these in).

Please try to finish reading the Hero's Journey by tomorrow--please bring your questions about vocabulary.  We'll try to do some listening tomorrow as well.

I'm looking forward to Abdulaziz's presentation.  What will it be about?  Whatever it is, I'm sure it will astonish us.


By the way, if you have some extra time, watch this famous children's story and tell me what you think.

Wednesday Homework, The Hero's Journey, writing assignment

Thanks for all your questions in class!  I appreciate your curiosity and concern about getting things right!

I hope I was able to explain the next writing assignment clearly.  This is one step closer to a purely independent project.  In this case, you have a goal which I have decided (to analyze a story in by using the ideas from the essay "The Hero's Journey," but you are able to choose a story that you enjoy, hopefully one that you love, and write a couple of pages concerning it.

I'll post a copy of  "The Hero's Journey" below for those of you who might have been out of class or in case you lose yours.  Read it, consider the examples (I'm sure most of you have seen Star Wars, Lion King, or Lord of the Rings--if not we'll try to find examples that you may be more familiar with.  Also, we'll analyze "The Window" and see how closely it fits to the pattern described in "The Hero's Journey."

And now, the homework!

In Grammar Dimensions,  please do (and write on a piece of paper that you can turn in) Exercise 6 on page 171.  You can use the words that the text provides, or you can use your own examples.  You can describe food, clothing, tools, religious articles, weapons, etc. from your culture.

For example: In Japanese restaurants, customers are handed an oshibori, which is a steamed, rolled towel, to wipe their hands with before a meal.

What is typical in your countries that you'd like to explain to Americans?  Or, if you prefer, you can write about little-known instruments or tools that you have used.

Also, please do Exercise 7 on pages 172-3 to practice adding comments.  Exercise 7 should also be written and handed in.

For example, John gave us a long article entitled "The Hero's Journey," which was exasperating!

And read the fun little story entitled "The Window," which I handed to you at the end of class.
How does it relate to the idea of "The Hero's Journey?"  We'll discuss that tomorrow.

THE HERO’S JOURNEY

Joseph Campbell, an American psychologist and mythological researcher, wrote a famous book entitled The Hero with a Thousand Faces. In his lifelong research Campbell discovered many common patterns running through hero myths and stories from around the world. Years of research lead Campbell to discover several basic stages that almost every hero-quest goes through (no matter what culture the myth is a part of). He calls this common structure “the monomyth.”

George Lucas, the creator of Star Wars, claims that Campbell’s monomyth was the inspiration for his groundbreaking films. Lucas also believes that Star Wars is such a popular saga because it taps into a timeless story-structure which has existed for thousands of years. Many followers of Campbell have defined the stages of his monomyth in various ways, sometimes supplying different names for certain stages. For this reason there are many different versions of the Hero’s Journey that retain the same basic elements.

THE ORDINARY WORLD

Heroes exist in a world is considered ordinary or uneventful by those who live there. Often the heroes are considered odd by those in the ordinary world and possess some ability or characteristic that makes them feel out-of-place.

·         The Wonderful Wizard of Oz: Dorothy in Kansas

·         The Hobbit: Bilbo Baggins in Hobbiton

·         Star Wars: Luke Skywalker on Tatooine

·         The Lion King: Simba at Pride Rock

THE CALL TO ADVENTURE

For heroes to begin their journeys, they must be called away from the ordinary world.  Fantastic quests don’t happen in everyday life. Heroes must be removed from their typical environment. Most heroes show a reluctance to leave their home, their friends, and their life to journey on a quest. But in the end they accept their destiny.

Usually there is a discovery, some event, or some danger that starts them on the heroic path. Heroes find a mystic object or discover their world is in danger. In some cases, heroes happen upon their quest by accident. Campbell puts it like this, “A blunder—the merest chance—reveals an unsuspected world.”

The new world the hero is forced into is much different than the old one. Campbell describes this new world as a “fateful region of both treasure and danger…a distant land, a forest, a kingdom underground, beneath the waves, or above the sky, a secret island, lofty mountaintop, or profound dream state…a place of strangely fluid and polymorphous beings, unimaginable torments, superhuman deeds, and impossible delight”. This description may seem pretty vague, but think of all the various fantasy realms characters have entered throughout the years: Middle-Earth, Oz, Narnia, Wonderland. It could even be outer space, a haunted house, or the Matrix. Regardless of the details, the new world is sure to be filled with adventure.

·         The Wonderful Wizard of Oz: The tornado

·         The Hobbit: Gandalf the wizard arrives

·         Star Wars: R2D2’s cryptic message

REFUSAL OF THE QUEST

During the Call to Adventure heroes are given a task or quest which only they can  complete. They are faced with a choice: accept the quest or deny it. Their choice might seem like a no-brainer. If they don’t accept the quest, there won’t be much of a story—or will there?  Actually there are stories where heroes don’t accept their destinies. When this happens, the stage is set for disaster. There’s a reason why the powers-that-be have chosen a particular hero. A refusal of the quest only brings trouble.

King Minos, the monarch of Crete who antagonizes the Greek hero Theseus, does not do what the gods ask of him. Poseidon, Lord of the Seas, sends him a beautiful white bull. The god’s only order is that Minos must sacrifice the creature back to him. After seeing the magnificent beast, Minos decides he just can’t bring himself to do what the god asks and keeps the bull as a personal trophy.

Enraged, Poseidon vows revenge and causes Minos’ wife to burn with lust for her husband’s prized beast. The rest of this story is strictly NC-17. It results in the birth of the Minotaur, a creature half-bull, half-human, a curse to his father King Minos.

Campbell notes that heroes who refuse their quest often become characters in need of rescuing or in Minos’ case, the villain of another hero’s journey.

·         Star Wars: Luke refuses the quest until he learns his aunt and uncle are dead

·         The Lion King: Simba refuses to return to Pride Rock and accept his destiny

·         Groundhog Day: Example of the negative cycle caused by refusing the call

ACCEPTING THE CALL

 Once the adventure is accepted, the heroes advance into the next stage of their journey.

ENTERING THE UNKNOWN

As they embark on their journey, the heroes enter a world they have never experienced before. Very often it is filled with supernatural creatures, breathtaking sights, and the constant threat of death. Unlike the heroes’ home, this outside world has its own rules, and they quickly learns to respect these rules as their endurance, strength, and mettle are tested time and time again. After all, it is not the end of the journey which teaches, but the journey itself.

·         The Wizard of Oz: Dorothy must learn the rules of Oz

·         The Matrix: Neo must come to grips with the realities and unrealities of the Matrix

SUPERNATURAL AID

Supernatural doesn’t have to mean magical. There are plenty of hero stories that don’t have wizards or witches per say. Supernatural simply means “above the laws of nature.”Heroes are almost always started on their journey by a character who has mastered the laws of the outside world and come back to bestow this wisdom upon them. This supernatural character often gives them the means to complete the quest. Some of the time the gift is simply wisdom. Other times it is an object with magical powers. In every instance it is something the hero needs to succeed. As Campbell says, “One has only to know and trust, and the ageless guardians will appear.” The job of the supernatural assistor is to give the heroes what they need to finish the quest—not finish it for them.

·         The Hobbit: Gandalf

·         Star Wars: Obi-Wan Kenobi

·         Cinderella: Fairy Godmother

TALISMAN

A Special (and often magical) items that assist the heroes on their quest.

·         The Wizard of Oz: Ruby Slippers

·         The Hobbit: The Ring

·         Star Wars: Lightsaber

ALLIES/HELPERS

Every hero needs a helper, much like every superhero needs a sidekick. Without the assistance of their companions and helpers along the way, most heroes would fail miserably.  For example, in the Greek hero story of Theseus, Minos’ daughter Ariadne, after falling hopelessly in love, helps Theseus navigate the Labyrinth. She does this by holding one end of a golden thread while Theseus works his way inward to slay the Minotaur. Without her help, Theseus would never have fulfilled his quest or found his way out of the maze once he did so.

·         Lord of the Rings: Samwise Gamgee

·         The Wizard of Oz: The Tin Woodsman, Scarecrow, and Cowardly Lion

TESTS & THE SUPREME ORDEAL

The heroes progress through a series of tests, a set of obstacles that make them stronger, preparing them for their final showdown. At long last they reach the Supreme Ordeal, the obstacle they have journeyed so far to overcome.

All the heroes’ training and toil comes into play now. The journey has hardened them, and it’s time for them to show their prowess. Once this obstacle is overcome, the tension will be relieved. The worst is passed, and the quest, while not officially over, has succeeded.

·         Star Wars: Blowing up the Death Star

·         Lord of the Rings: Mount Doom

·         The Wizard of Oz: Defeating the Wicked Witch

REWARD AND THE JOURNEY HOME

Typically, there is a reward given to heroes for passing the Supreme Ordeal. It could be a kingdom. It could be the hand of a beautiful princess. It could be the Holy Grail. Whatever it is, it is a reward for the heroes’ endurance and strength.

After the heroes complete the Supreme Ordeal and have the reward firmly in hand, all that is left is for them to return home. Just because the majority of the adventure has passed doesn’t mean that the return journey will be smooth sailing. There are still lesser homebound obstacles to overcome.

·         The Hobbit: The Battle of Five Armies

·         The Lord of the Rings: Return to Hobbiton

MASTER OF TWO WORLDS/ RESTORING THE WORLD

Success on the heroes’ quest is life-changing, for them and often for many others. By achieving victory, they have changed or preserved their original world. Often they return with “the elixer,” an object or personal ability that allows them to save their world.

The heroes have also grown in spirit and strength. They have proved themselves worthy for marriage, kingship, or queenship. Their mastery of the outside world qualifies them to be giants in their own.

·         Lord of the Rings: Frodo saves the Shire

·         The Wizard of Oz: Dorothy rids Oz of the Wicked Witch

THE MONOMYTH: NOT JUST FOR MYTHOLOGY

While Joseph Campbell’s monomyth works best with the traditional form of the quest—folk and fairy tales, myths, legends, and other fantasies—it can be applied to many different genres or types of stories. A quest does not have to include swords and monsters. It can just as easily occur in the real world. The monomyth, ageless and universal, exists anywhere and everywhere.

ARCHETYPES APPEARING IN THE HERO’S JOURNEY

Joseph Campbell was heavily influenced by the Swiss Psychiatrist Carl Jung whose theory of the collective unconscious involved archetypes—recurring images, patterns, and ideas from dreams and myths across various cultures. Below are several archetypes often found in myths.

·         HEROES: Central figures in stories. Everyone is the hero of his or her own myth.

·         SHADOWS: Villains, enemies, or perhaps the enemy within. This could be the

·         repressed possibilities of the hero, his or her potential for evil.

·         MENTORS: The hero’s guide or guiding principles.

·         HERALD: The one who brings the Call to Adventure. This could be a person or an event.

·         THRESHOLD GUARDIANS: The forces that stand in the way at important turning points, including jealous enemies, professional gatekeepers, or even the hero’s own fears and doubts.

·         SHAPESHIFTERS: In stories, creatures like vampires or werewolves who change shape. In life, the shapeshifter represents change.

·         TRICKSTERS: Clowns and mischief-makers.

·         ALLIES: Characters who help the hero throughout the quest.

·    WOMAN AS TEMPTRESS: Sometimes a female character offers danger to the hero (a femme fatale)

Essay: The Hero's Journey

By Tuesday, please read the article "The Hero's Journey," which is based on the ideas of the scholar Joseph Campbell, who believed that almost all myths and legends have the same generic schema.  Perhaps it's based on some supernatural reality...?  Read about the different stages of this journey and the archetypal characters whom we can find in such stories.

Then choose a book, movie, or old story that you have enjoyed and try to analyze it in terms of "The Hero's Journey."  When you write about the stages or characters, try to use non-defining relative clauses.

For example, "In Harry Potter, Dumbledore is the mentor, which is a guide to the hero."

Your essay should be at least two type-written pages (Times Roman, 12 point font, reasonable margins!)

You can print it out and give it to me on Tuesday or send it to my email address at jfzkaplan13@yahoo.com.

Tuesday Homework

Oh dear, I hope this isn't too late.

This week we're covering Units 9 and 20 of Grammar Dimensions.  Our homework for tonight is Exercise 1 on page 167.  You don't have to hand it in--we'll check it in class.

See you tomorrow!

John

Sonia Shah: Why we haven't gotten rid of malaria

Congratulations--you've gotten through another test!

And after you finished, we watched a TED talk about one of the topics we read about and discussed--why we haven't eradicated, wiped out, gotten rid of malaria.  Here is a prominent scientist talking about just that subject.  Her name is Sonia Shah and the title is 3 reasons why we haven't gotten rid of malaria.

Here's the link to the site.   For some reason they haven't put the subtitles on it yet, but if you go to TED Talks, you can read the script below the screen.

If you're a TOEFL test taker, try to listen to it without reading the script and take notes.  Then try to summarize it.  Read the script after that and see what you've missed.  Look up words or expression that you might have missed!

See you tomorrow.

Friday Study Sheet, Homework, Ma Soba

Today, we say goodbye to Afnan, Paolo, Jason, and Asaad.  Fridays are sad days, but we're glad to have gotten a chance to know you and wish you all the best in your future endeavors.

Thank you to Nicolas for his tour around the Seven Modern Wonders of the World  I'm ashamed to say that I have visited only one (The Pyramids of Giza), but hope to add a few more before I am no more.  Definitely the Colosseum in Rome and the Great Wall of China, although all remaining 6 sites are well worth visiting

We finished up Unit 3, going over Focus points 6 and 7.  Both have very useful charts which explain what kind of verb (singular or plural) you should use with various words and expressions.  I highly recommend that you study them.

Let's do homework exercises 14 and 15 (pages 54 and 56, respectively) and we'll go over them before the test.  Also, read the rest of the Top Ten Epidemics.  I'll select some passages for the test, including at least one from the part you may not have read yet.  In case you lost your copy, there is a version on this blog which I posted yesterday.

Finally, a number of us are going to meet at Ma Soba tonight, although I'm not sure exactly what the number is.  

Here is a link to the Ma Soba site which shows the directions.  The closest T stop is Government Center, although it is not as close to the restaurant as I thought.  Cambridge Street is on the other side of Beacon Hill--in other words, if you got off the T at Park Street Station and walked up Park Street to the State House at the top of the hill and walked down the other side, you would reach Cambridge Street.

If you get off at Government Center, you'll have to cross the street and then go right, bearing left and making a big curve. Ma Soba should be on your left between Hancock and Joy Streets.

If you get to Government Center by 7:00, we'll meet you there and walk to the restaurant together.  If not, look at the map on the Ma Soba site and follow my directions and it should only take you about 10 minutes before you come to the restaurant.

See you there!

And finally, the study sheet, in case you lost yours or missed class.

AM Proficiency Week 17 Study Sheet

Study Grammar Dimensions Unit 3

Grammar Dimensions p38-9

a poll/to poll    to take/conduct a poll

Grammar Dimensions p41

a consideration

to structure

to be critical of

Grammar Dimensions p43-4

to rank (v.i., v.t.)  a rank

to thrive, thriving

to snoop, snoopy

to be nosey: to be too curious about other people

   My nosey neighbor always asks me where I’m going.

to conduct (a study, an experiment, research, etc.)

Grammar Dimensions p45

a subscription, to subscribe to (a magazine, a belief)

Grammar Dimensions p46

Pay special attention to  the list of mass nouns!

a flock/to flock

a swarm/to swarm

a herd/to herd

Grammar Dimensions p47

fair (so-so, mediocre)

to neglect

Grammar Dimensions p48-50

physics

(the) mumps

arthritis

plaid

a chipmunk

a shingle, the shingles

a wart

(a pair of) pliers

Grammar Dimensions p51

up-to-date

Grammar Dimensions p53-4

to lift weights

a carnival

a monument

Grammar Dimensions p54

an aftermath

disruption

epicenter

to uproot

’in the vicinity’

to jam, to be jammed with

Grammar Dimensions p55-6

an outfit

valid, validity (N), to validate

a finding

to be justified

Academic Connections

Academic Connections p136

infectious  (FEC, FECT)

 respiratory

a phase

contagious

to overcome

inflammation

to cough, a cough

a symptom

a blister, to blister

to eradicate, eradication

fatal, a fatality

vaccination

a chill, to chill, chilly

a rash

itchy, to itch, an itch, to itch to

acute

a complication

elderly

lethargy, lethargic

shortness of breath

gastroenteric disease

fatigue, to fatigue, to be fatigued

to cough up

vomit

to shiver, a shiver

to vomit

a joint (elbow, knew, wrist, etc.)

a bowel movement (!)

a convulsion

to contract a disease, illness

tuberculosis (TB)

malaria

Academic Connections Listening

susceptible

a parasite, parasitic

(schistosomiasis)

the bladder

the kidneys

the intestines

dehydration/rehydration [HYDRO-water]

the measles

(human) waste

stagnant, to stagnate

to breed, a breed

a rodent

susceptible (to)

horrific

bubonic plague

plague, to plague

to wipe out

10 Worst Epidemics

doom

a casualty

an outbreak

to decimate

an epidemic

a pandemic

deadly

a ditch

a pillar

immunity, immune (to)

chief among…

mortality rate

smallpox

a scab

confined

to spearhead

a death toll

staggering, to stagger

“to run its course”

a fatality

a strain

prior to

nausea

diarrhea

to run the risk of

to subside

to mutate

lethal

a corpse

to quarantine, in quarantine

a peasant

The Black Death (the bubonic plague)

a flea

pneumonic

to call into question

hemorrhagic virus

ebola

to substantiate

to feed on

to pass on

to come by (s.t.)

an undertaking, to undertake

to follow up on

DDT

to set out to

to pose a problem

to ravage

to waste away

a spine

to rage, a rage

to attribute to

a breakthrough

a comeback, to come back

to lapse, a lapse

cholera

inadvertently, inadvertent

mild

a cramp, to cramp, cramped

to push for

sanitary

sewage

a thing of the past

to best

HIV positive

deficiency

a syndrome

opportunistic

to make the jump from A to B

a transfusion

to deplete

to wage a campaign

yellow fever

to range from A to B

to go down in history as

jaundice

obesity

chronic

filthy

lice

to put up with

a menace, to menace

devastating, to devastate, devastation

typhus

starvation

to claim (a life)

to dictate

appetite

gangrene

pneumonia

delirium, delirious

a coma

cardiac

polio

millenia, a millennium

paralyzing, to paralyze

fecal, feces

stiffness

limbs (arms and legs)

primary

a malady

to boost

to skyrocket

extinction

Thursday Homework, 10 Worst Epidemics

Homework?  On Thursday?  John gives so much homework.  It's so much, it's uncountable!

(That's a joke--get it?  "homework" is an uncountable noun, right?)

Never mind. 

Let's do Exercise 7 on page 47 and Exercise 9 on page 49.  As you'll have to write your own sentences, please put them on a piece of paper and hand them in tomorrow.

Also, Please read a section of the handout that I gave you today.  If you've missed class today, please see the entire article below.  However, you only have to read until but not including epidemic number 6, tuberculosis.

I will choose a TOEFL reading section length part of this article for the test on Monday, so take advantage of the chance to read it carefully in advance!  The vocabulary words which are in bold will be among those on the study sheet which I'll give you tomorrow.

10 Worst Epidemics  http://dsc.discovery.com/tv-shows/curiosity/topics/10-worst-epidemics.htm  By Robert Lamb« previous

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­Few words in the English language suggest as much horror, misery and doom as "plague." After all, infectious diseases have inflicted a great deal of damage throughout the centuries. They've decimated whole populations, ended blood lines, claimed higher casualties than wars and played key roles in charting the course of history.

Early humans were no strangers to disease. They encountered the microbes that cause illness in drinking water, food and the environment. Occasionally an outbreak might decimate a small group, but they never encountered anything close to the widespread illnesses of the ages to follow. It wasn't until humans began gathering in larger populations that contagious diseases had the opportunity to spread to epidemic proportions. An epidemic occurs when a disease affects a large number of people within a population, such as a city or geographic region. If it affects even greater numbers and a wider area, these outbreaks become pandemics.

Humans also opened themselves up to new and deadlier diseases by domesticating animals that have their own microbes. By putting themselves in regular, close contact with formerly wild animals, early farmers gave these microbes a chance to adapt to human hosts.

As humans expanded their territory, they came into closer contact with microbes they might have never encountered. By storing food, humans attracted creatures such as rats and mice, which brought more microbes. Human expansion also resulted in the construction of more wells and ditches, which provided more standing water for disease-carrying mosquitoes. As technology allowed for wider travel and trade, new microbes could easily spread from one highly populated area to another.

Ironically, many of the pillars of modern human society paved the way for one of its greatest threats. And just as we continue to grow, so too microbes continue to evolve. In this article, we'll take a look at 10 of the worst epidemics to ever plague mankind and how each disease works.

Epidemic 10: Smallpox

Before European explorers, conquerors and colonists began to enter the New World in the early 1500s, the Americas were home to an estimated 100 million native people. During the centuries that followed, epidemic diseases decreased that number to somewhere between 5 and 10 million. While these people, such as the Incas and the Aztecs, had built cities, they hadn't lived in them long enough to breed the kind of diseases Europeans had, nor had they domesticated as many animals. When the Europeans arrived to the Americas, they brought with them many diseases for which the native peoples had no defense or immunity.

Chief among these diseases was smallpox, caused by the variola virus. These microbes began affecting humans thousands of years ago, with the most common form of the disease having a 30 percent mortality rate. Smallpox causes high fevers, body aches, and a rash that develops from fluid-filled bumps and scabs to permanent  scars. The disease predominantly spreads through direct contact with an infected person's skin or bodily fluids, but can also be spread though the air in close, confined environments.

Despite the creation of a vaccine in 1796, smallpox epidemics continued to spread. Even as recently as 1967, the virus killed two million people and scared millions more across the world. That same year, the World Health Organization (WHO) spearheaded an effort to eradicate the virus through mass vaccinations. As a result, 1977 marked the last naturally occurring case of smallpox.

Epidemic 9: The Flu of 1918

The year was 1918. The world watched as World War I came to a close. By the end of the year, the estimated death toll would reach 37 million worldwide, and millions of returned to their homes. Then a new illness emerged. Some called it the Spanish flu, others the Great Influenza or the flu of 1918. Whatever you wanted to call it, the disease killed as many as 20 million people in a matter of months. In a year's time, the flu would run its course, but only after inflicting a staggering death toll. Global estimates range between 50 and 100 million fatalities. Many consider this the worst pandemic, in recorded human history.

The flu of 1918 wasn't the typical influenza virus we encounter every year. This was a new strain of flu microbe, the H1N1 avian influenza A virus. Scientists suspect the disease moved from birds to humans in the American Midwest just prior to the outbreak. It was later called the Spanish flu after an epidemic in Spain killed 8 million people. Worldwide, people's immune systems were unprepared for the new virus -- just as the Aztecs were unprepared for the arrival of smallpox in the 1500s. Massive troop transport and supply lines at the close of World War I allowed the virus to quickly reach pandemic proportions by spreading to other continents and countries.

The flu of 1918 carried symptoms typical of normal influenza, including fever, nausea, aches and diarrhea. Also, patients would frequently develop black spots on their cheeks. As their lungs filled with liquid, they ran the risk of dying from lack of oxygen. Those who died effectively drowned in their own mucus.

The epidemic subsided within a year as the virus mutated into other, less lethal forms. Most people today have some degree of immunity to this family of H1N1 virus, inherited from those who survived the pandemic.

Epidemic 8: The Black Death

Carts piled high with corpses, dying families boarded up in quarantine and kings and peasants alike crying to heaven for help -- when it comes to epidemic diseases, few illnesses instill such dire images as the Black Death. Considered the first true pandemic disease, the Black Death killed half of Europe's population in 1348 and also decimated parts of China and India. This "great dying" followed paths of trade and war, decimating cities and towns and permanently altering class structure, global politics, trade and society.

The Black Death has long thought to have been an epidemic of plague, traveling in its bubonic form on the fleas of rats and through the air in its pneumonic form. Recent studies have called this into question. Some scientists now argue the Black Death may have been a hemorrhagic virus similar to ebola. This form of illness results in massive blood loss. Scientists continue to study the remains of suspected plague victims in hopes of uncovering genetic evidence to substantiate their theories.

If it was plague, then the Black Death is still with us. Caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis, the illness can still present a problem in impoverished, rat-infested areas. Modern medicine allows for easy treatment of the disease in its early stages, making it a far less lethal threat. Symptoms include swollen lymph glands, fever, cough, bloody sputum and difficulty breathing.

Epidemic 7: Malaria

Malaria isn't new to the world of epidemic diseases. Records of its impact on human populations date back more than 4,000 years, when Greek writers noted its effects. Accounts of the mosquito-borne illness pop up in ancient Indian and Chinese medical texts. Even then, scientists made the vital connections between the illness and the still waters where mosquitoes breed.

Malaria is caused by four species of microbes common to two species: mosquitoes and humans. When infected mosquitoes feed on human blood, they pass on the microbes. Once in the blood, the microbes grow inside red blood cells, destroying them in the process. Symptoms vary from mild to deadly, but typically include fever, chills, sweating, headache and muscle pains.

­Specific figures relating to ancient malaria epidemics are difficult to come by. The past effects of the disease can best be seen in examining large-scale human undertakings in malaria-infested areas. In 1906, the United States employed more than 26,000 workers to construct the Panama Canal. Organizers hospitalized more than 21,000 of these men for malaria.

At the end of World War II, the United States attempted to halt the malaria epidemic. The country initially made huge strides by using the now-banned insecticide DDT, then followed up with preventive measures to keep mosquito populations low. After the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) declared malaria eradicated in the United States, the World Health Organization (WHO) set out to eradicate the illness worldwide. Results were mixed, however, and costs, war, politics, the emergence of drug-resistant strains of malaria and insecticide-resistant mosquitoes eventually led to the project's abandonment.

Today, malaria continues to pose a problem in much of the world, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, an area that was excluded from the WHO eradication campaign. Each year, between 350 and 500 million cases of malaria occur in the region. Of those cases, more than a million result in death. Even in the United States, more than a thousand cases and a handful of deaths occur each year, despite previous claims of eradication.

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Epidemic 6: Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB) has ravaged human populations throughout recorded history. Ancient texts detail the manner in which its victims waste away, and DNA evidence of the disease was even discovered in Egyptian mummies.

Caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis, TB spreads from person to person through the air. One person breathes the bacterium out and another breathes it in. The bacterium usually targets the lungs, resulting in chest pains, weakness, weight loss, fever, night sweats and fits of bloody coughing. In some cases, the bacterium also affects the brain, kidneys or spine.

Beginning in the 1600s, the European TB epidemic known as the Great White Plague raged for 200 years, killing approximately one out of every seven infected people. TB was a constant problem in colonial America. Even at the close of the 19th century, 10 percent of all U.S. deaths were attributed to tuberculosis.

In 1944, doctors developed the antibiotic streptomycin with which to combat the disease. Further breakthroughs were made in the years to follow, and after 5,000 years of suffering, humankind finally had a cure.

Yet despite modern cures and treatments, TB continues to infect an estimated 8 million people annually, eventually killing an estimated 2 million. The illness made a huge comeback in the 1990s, due largely to lapsed prevention and treatment programs, poverty, and the emergence of new, antibiotic-resistant strains of TB. Additionally, patients with HIV/AIDS experience weakened immune systems, making them more susceptible to TB infection.

Epidemic 5: Cholera

The people of India had lived with the dangers of cholera since ancient times, but it wasn't until the 19th century that the rest of the world experienced this disease. During this period, traders inadvertently exported the deadly virus back to cities in China, Japan, North Africa, the Middle East and Europe. Six cholera pandemics followed, killing millions.

Cholera is caused by an intestinal bacterium called Vibrio cholerae. Infections are frequently mild. 5% of those who contract it experience severe vomiting, diarrhea and leg cramps leading to rapid dehydration and shock. Most immune systems can easily defeat cholera, but only if the patient remains hydrated long enough to live through it. Humans can contract the bacterium through close physical contact, but cholera mainly spreads though contaminated water and food.

Traders introduced cholera to the cramped and squalid conditions of Europe's major cities during the industrial revolution of the 1800s. Doctors pushed for cleaner living conditions and more sanitary sewage systems, thinking "bad air" caused the epidemic. This helped matters, and when the connection was finally made to contaminated drinking water, cases greatly decreased.

For decades, it seemed cholera was a thing of the past -- just a disease of the 18th century bested by improvements in sanitation and medical science. Nevertheless, a new strain of cholera emerged in 1961 in Indonesia, and it eventually spread to much of the world. The ensuing pandemic continues to this day. In 1991, cholera sickened an estimated 300,000 people and killed 4,000 within the year.

Epidemic 4: AIDS

The emergence of AIDS in the 1980s has led to a global pandemic, killing an estimated 25 million people since 1981. According to recent statistics, 33.2 million people are currently HIV-positive, and 2.1 million people died of AIDS in 2007 alone.

AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The virus spreads through contact with blood, semen and other bodily fluids, and it damages the human immune system. The damaged immune system opens the body up to infections, called opportunistic infections (OIs), that otherwise wouldn't pose a problem. HIV becomes AIDS if the immune system breaks down severely enough.

Scientists believe HIV made the jump from certain species of monkey and ape to humans sometime in the mid 20th century. During the 1970s, Africa's population grew, and war, poverty and unemployment plagued urban areas. Prostitution and intravenous drug abuse rose out of the chaos, with HIV spreading easily via unprotected sex and the reuse of contaminated needles. Even in hospitals, the reuse of needles and the contaminated blood transfusions contributed to the epidemic. Since then, AIDS has moved through sub-Saharan Africa, orphaning millions of children and depleting the work force in many of the world's poorest developing nations.

Currently, there's no cure for AIDS, though certain drugs can keep HIV from developing into AIDS. Additional medications can help combat OIs. Various organizations have waged an AIDS campaign of treatment, education and prevention. As mentioned earlier, HIV is often transmitted through sexual intercourse and the use of shared needles. Doctors continue to push for the use of condoms and disposable needles.

Epidemic 3: Yellow Fever

When Europeans began importing African slaves to the Americas, they also brought over a number of new diseases, including yellow fever. This illness, also known as "yellow jack," spread through the colonies.

When French emperor Napoleon sent an army of 33,000 to French areas in North America, yellow fever killed 29,000 of those soldiers. Napoleon was so shocked by the number of casualties that he decided the territory wasn't worth the risk of further losses. France sold the land to the United States in 1803; an event which would go down in history as the Louisiana Purchase.

Yellow fever, like malaria, spreads from person to person through feeding mosquitoes. Typical symptoms include fever, chills, headache, muscle ache, backache and vomiting. Severity of symptoms ranges from mild to deadly, as severe infections can lead to bleeding, shock and kidney and liver failure. Liver failure causes jaundice or the yellowing of skin, which gives the illness its name.

Despite vaccination, improved treatment procedures and better mosquito management, epidemics of the illness persist to this day in South America and Africa.

The Harm We Cause Ourselves

The World Health Organization (WHO) continues the fight current epidemics around the world -- including smoking and obesity. Clinical obesity challenges approximately 300 million people worldwide, greatly increasing the risk of serious chronic disease and reducing quality of life. As for cigarettes, the WHO predicts that in 20 years, smoking will cause more fatalities than HIV, tuberculosis and violent deaths combined

Epidemic 2: Epidemic Typhus

Crowd enough people together in cramped, filthy conditions and you're likely to have an outbreak of body lice on your hands. Dirty cities and army camps throughout history have had to put up with the parasitic menace and the bacteria they carry. The tiny microbe Rickettsia prowazekii causes one of the more devastating infectious diseases the world has ever known: epidemic typhus.

The disease plagued humankind for centuries, inflicting deaths by the thousands. Due to its frequency among armies, it was often called "camp fever" or "war fever." During the course of Europe's Thirty Years War (1618-1648), typhus, plague and starvation claimed an estimated 10 million people. Occasionally, outbreaks of typhus would even dictate the outcome of entire wars.  As recently as World War I, the disease caused several million deaths in Russia, Poland and Romania.

Symptoms of epidemic typhus typically include headache, loss of appetite, lethargy, and a rapid rise in temperature. This quickly develops into a fever, accompanied by chills and nausea. If untreated, the illness affects blood circulation, resulting in spots of gangrene, pneumonia and kidney failure. Progressive heat exhaustion can eventually lead to delirium, coma and cardiac failure.

Improved treatment methods and sanitary conditions greatly reduced epidemic typhus' impact in modern times. The appearance of a typhus vaccine during World War II and the use of DDT on lice populations helped effectively eliminate the illness in the developed world. Outbreaks still occur in parts of South America, Africa and Asia.

Epidemic 1: Polio

Researchers suspect polio has been an epidemic in humans for millennia, paralyzing and killing children by the thousands. As recently as 1952, there were an estimated 58,000 cases of polio in the United States alone -- one-third of the patients were paralyzed. Of these cases, more than 3,000 died.

The cause of the disease is the poliovirus poliomyelitis, which targets the human nervous system. It spreads though fecal matter, often passing on to others through contaminated food or water. Initial symptoms include fever, fatigue, headache, vomiting, stiffness and limb pains. From here, roughly one in 200 cases leads to paralysis. While this usually affects the legs, the disease sometimes spreads to the breathing muscles, usually with fatal results.

Polio occurs most frequently in children but affects adults as well. It all depends on when the person encounters the virus for the first time and develops his or her primary infection. The immune system is better prepared to fight the disease off at an early age, so the higher the age at primary infection, the greater the risk of paralysis and death.

Polio is an old malady for humans, circulating wildly for centuries. With increased exposure to the virus came boosted immunity, especially in children. In the 18th century, sanitation methods improved in many countries. This limited the spread of the disease, decreasing natural immunity and the chances of exposure at a very young age. As a result, more and more people encountered the virus at an older age, and the number of paralytic cases in developed nations skyrocketed.

There's no effective cure for polio, but doctors perfected a polio vaccine in the early 1950s. Since then, cases in the United States and other developed nations dropped dramatically, and only a handful of developing nations still experience polio at epidemic levels. As humans are the only known carriers of the virus, widespread vaccination almost guarantees polio's extinction. In 1988, the World Health Organization organized the Global Polio Eradication Initiative to pursue just this goal.